Pre-Colonial
Some of the earliest known inhabitants of the Western Sahara region, who are considered ancestors of the modern-day Saharawis, were the Sanhaja Berber. Archeologists have found evidence to suggest that the Sanhaja were long-term inhabitants of the region, perhaps as far back as the Neolithic era. They were instrumental in the trans-Saharan trade that ended up bringing West Africa into contact with the Muslim cultures of North Africa. Between the 11th and 13th centuries successive waves of Arab tribes, known as the Beni Hassan, emanating from the Yemenite peninsula, conquered and Islamised the Sanhaja, giving the name to their spoken
language, Hassaniye, and creating a cultural fusion, which included West African influences introduced through the slave trade.
8,500 - 3,500 BCE
Once a lush grassland, the Sahara desert forms through the process of desertification, leading the region’s inhabitants to live a more nomadic lifestyle.
1st - 3rd Centuries
The Roman empire makes contact with the inhabitants of the Sahara through its north African provinces.
7th - 8th Centuries
Traders from the Arabian peninsula bring Islam to North and West Africa
1040 - 1147
The Sanhaja Imazighen (Amazigh or Berber) tribes form the Almoravid dynasty and conquer what is now considered modern-day southern
Spain, Morocco, Western Sahara, and parts of Algeria and Mauritania.
12th Century
One of the prominent founders of the
Almoravid dynasty, Abdallah ibn Yasin, promotes the more conservative Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence to the Sanhaja, popularizing it throughout the region.
Ibn Tumart, a Berber jurist who opposed the Almoravids, spreads the tawid doctrine of Islam which combines elements of Islamic tradition with Berber culture. This inspires the rise of the Almohad dynasty.
1121 - 1269
The Almohad dynasty of Berbers defeat the Almoravid dynasty, conquering the capital city
of Marrakesh and taking over more of southern Spain.
1269 - 1548
The Marinid dynasty, also a confederation of Berber tribes, pushes out the Almohad dynasty
and continues the jihad in Spain
Early European Contact
The period from the early 15th century to the late 17th century has been characterized by historians as the Age of Exploration. The “great” empires of Europe – Spain, England, France, and Portugal – sent ships across the globe to discover new riches, whether that be gold, spices, or people to enslave. For the many peoples whose land the Europeans
came to, however, the story was very different: it was most often a story of genocide, exploitation, and loss. For the Saharawis of Western Sahara, the arrival of the Portuguese and later the Spanish to their ancestral land at the end of the 15th century marked the beginning of a new era, one of both pain and struggle, and of growth and
revolution.
15th - 16th Centuries
First recorded arrivals of European expeditions in Western Sahara
Henry the Navigator of Portugal launches exploration initiatives along the West African coast in attempts to infiltrate the trade routes of
the Muslim world.
The Spanish begin colonization of the Canary Islands as a stopover point for ships heading to the Americas.
1441
Portuguese explorer Antam Goncalvez kidnaps two Berbers as slaves from Cap Blanc near contemporary Mauritania and
Western Sahara. This is considered by many to be the start of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade.
1478
Construction of the first Spanish outpost in Western Sahara
1572
Expeditions from the Canary Islands enter Western Sahara
1638
The Dutch begin occupying the region of Rio del Oro, which would then fall under brief English occupation in 1665
1727
The Dutch cede their territories to the French
1767
The Moroccan Sultan Mohamed bin
Abdullah and the Spanish King Carlos III sign the Marrakesh Treaty. In it the Sultan acknowledges he has no sovereignty beyond Wad Noun in southern Morocco or the region
known as modern-day Western Sahara.
1869
The Saharawis originally founded Smara as a resting place for travelers. It was the first
precolonial town and an important centre of religious learning. Later, when Spain colonised it, Smara became a garrison town.
Spanish Colonialism
For years, before becoming the official colonial ruler of Western Sahara, Spanish forces attempted to control the major profitable trade routes running through the territory. Then in the late 19th century and beyond, after the European powers carved up the African continent for their own, Spain formalized its rule over the territory. The discovery of rich
phosphate deposits in Western Sahara in the mid 20th century further incentivized the Spanish to continue their colonial project in the territory.
The Saharawis, who for so long had enjoyed the freedom to roam their land as they pleased, now found themselves restricted by a foreign power. Despite being under colonial rule, however, they continued to preserve much of their culture. But from the 50's onward, the Saharawis began to develop a sense of shared national identity which grew
stronger over the years. This ultimately superseded their traditional tribal loyalties and led to the rise of the Saharawi liberation movement.
1884
The European nations meet at the Berlin Conference to carve up and colonize the African continent. Spain claims Western Sahara as its own in 1884. Spanish Sahara is officially known as Spanish Possessions in the Sahara until 1958.
1934
Spain finally pacifies the Saharawi tribes in the desert hinterland.
1948
Spanish geologist Manuel El Yamdania discovers the existence of rich phosphate deposits in the region of Bu Craa near Al Aauin
1957
Soon after gaining its independence from France, Morocco begins making its claims over Western Sahara, along with Mauritania and parts of Mali and Algeria, as part of his vision of a Greater Morocco. Initially promulgated by Allal Al-Fassi, leader of the Istiqlal party, Morocco justifies its claim by saying the territories were conquered by
Moroccan Sultans in pre-colonial times
1958
Spanish Sahara is officially declared as Spain's 53rd province
1960
The United Nations General Assembly passes Resolution 1514 (XV) stating that all previously colonised territories have the right
to self-determination.
1962
Spain begins exploiting the phosphate mines in the region after studies confirm the presence of large quantities of the valuable
mineral in Bu Craa. From there, Spain creates the National Company of Saharan Minerals, which leads to the growth of urban centres. Successive droughts in the desert compel many Saharawis to trade their nomadic lifestyles for urban ones to find work opportunities.
1965
The UN GA adopts Resolution 2072, its first on Spanish Sahara, requesting Spain as the Administering Power to take immediate steps to decolonise the territory.
1962
Spain begins exploiting the phosphate mines in the region after studies confirm the presence of large quantities of the valuable
mineral in Bu Craa. From there, Spain creates the National Company of Saharan Minerals, which leads to the growth of urban centres. Successive droughts in the desert compel many Saharawis to trade their nomadic lifestyles for urban ones to find work opportunities.
1965
The UN GA adopts Resolution 2072, its first on Spanish Sahara, requesting Spain as the Administering Power to take immediate steps to decolonise the territory.
1966
UN GA Resolution 2229 invites Spain to determine the earliest possible time to start the decolonisation process.
The Saharawis launch their first national liberation movement for independence known as Harakat Tahrir. It is led by Koranic teacher
and journalist, Mohamed Bassiri
1970
JUNE 17th:
The Harakat Tahrir is crushed by the Spanish dictator, Francisco Franco, at a big demonstration, which becomes known as the "Zemla Uprising". The peaceful protest
demanding independence is violently broken up by Spanish Foreign Legion, who open fire and kill at least eleven people, and kidnap Bassiri. He is regarded as the first
"disappeared" Saharawi. His fate remains unknown.
1973
MAY 10th:
The Zemla massacre influences a group of Saharawi university students who form the
Polisario Front, or el Frente Popular de Liberacion de Saguia del Hamra y Rio del Oro, believing national liberation from Spanish colonial rule can only be achieved by armed
struggle. In a short space of time, the Polisario Front grows from a small vanguard force to a mass movement.
MAY 20th:
The Polisario launches its first armed
operation against the Spanish colonists in a confrontation known as the Kanga Battle.
1974
The Polisario begins mobilising mass support through the diffusion of poems and songs as way to reach the largely illiterate Sahrawi population. By mid 1974 successive Polisario operations against colonial military sites pressure Spain to take steps to undertake a census of the Saharawi population in Spanish Sahara to prepare for a self-determination referendum under the
instructions of the UN.
DECEMBER 13th:
The UN General Assembly passes Resolution 3292 urging Spain to postpone the referendum to allow the International Court of Justice to give its advisory opinion on the
territorial claims of Morocco and Mauritania to Western Sahara
1975
MAY:
UN officials, chaired by Simeon Aké
(pictured), visit Western Sahara to
investigate the political situation in the
Spanish Sahara and the conflicting claims to
the territory. Their subsequent report
reaffirmed overwhelming Saharawi
aspirations for independence.
OCTOBER 16th:
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) rules
in favor of Saharawi self-determination,
rejecting Morocco's attempt to assert control
over the territory
OCTOBER 31st:
Morocco begins its military invasion of
Western Sahara.
NOVEMBER 6th:
King Hassan II of Morocco orders the
mobilisation of 350,000 Moroccan civilians
into Western Sahara to reclaim "ancestral
lands" in the Green March.
NOVEMBER 14th:
Spain, Morocco, and Mauritania sign the
Madrid Accords, a secret tripartite
agreement that gives Morocco the northern
two-thirds of Spanish Sahara and Mauritania
the southern third. The agreement also
includes the provision that Spain maintains
35% of shares in the Bu Craa mining
enterprise.
Morocco and Mauritania invade Western
Sahara and war breaks out in the region.
The mass exodus of Saharawi refugees
begins.
1976
In early February, Moroccan planes bomb
Saharawi civilians at Umm Dreiga fleeing the invasion to the desert with napalm and cluster bombs.
FEBRUARY 26th:
The last Spanish troops leave Western
Sahara, officially signalling the end of Spain's rule
Occupation, War, Exile
Upon Spanish withdrawal from the territory in 1976, the Saharawis became embroiled in a bitter fight with Morocco, during which thousands would be killed and thousands more displaced as refugees. Those 15 years symbolized extreme grief and pain for many Saharawis but also hope that one day their dream of returning to a free and independent
homeland would be achieved. While that dream has not yet been made a reality, the grit and perseverance shown by the Saharawis and the role played by the women during this time have inspired generations to come.
1976
FEBRUARY 27th:
The Saharawis self-proclaim the birth of the
Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic, a
governing body to fill the political and legal
void left in Western Sahara
The main founding leader of the Polisario
Front, Mustapha Sayyed El Ouali, is killed in
battle against Mauritania at the age of 27.
1979
Mauritania is militarily defeated and withdraws
from Western Sahara and retracts its claims of sovereignty.
NOVEMBER 11th:
The UN GA passes Resolution 34/37, titled
"Question of Western Sahara" which
recognises the Polisario as the only legitimate representative of the Saharawi people.
1981
Morocco begins construction on a 2,700
kilometer "defensive wall" known as the
Berm. The wall, completed in 1987 is the
longest defensive wall in the world and is
covered in millions of landmines to deter
anyone from crossing and defended by over
100,000 Moroccan soldiers.
1984
FEBRUARY 27th:
Mauritania recognizes and establishes full
diplomatic ties with the SADR. Other
prominent nations like India and Nigeria
follow suit, and at its height, the SADR gains
the recognition of 84 different states. Morocco then invades and begins occupying
the area previously controlled by Mauritania.
The UN condemns this illegal land grab by
Morocco.
The Organization of African Unity (OAU), the
predecessor to the African Union (AU),
recognises the SADR and announces its
entry into the organization as a full member.
Ceasefire
During the period from 1991 to 2020, a cease-fire held in Western Sahara. Originally agreed to by both the Polisario and the Moroccan regime, it was meant to allow the UN to resolve the conflict by organising a referendum for Saharawi self-
determination to vote for either integration with Morocco or independence.
Over the course of the next 29 years, this plan experienced repeated obstacles and postponements from the Moroccan side and revealed the failures of the UN and the lack of political will by the international community to oblige Morocco to adhere to its original agreement. After years of mounting frustration, numerous Moroccan cease-fire violations with impunity, and its hardening position against Saharawi self-determination, the Polisario finally lost faith in the UN process.
1991
APRIL 29th:
Morocco and the Polisario reach a ceasefire
with the help of the UN, pausing the 16 year-long conflict. With the ceasefire comes the creation of the UN Mission for a Referendum
in Western Sahara (MINURSO) and the
promise of a referendum. The Identification Commission (IDC) is set up to begin the process of identifying potential voters based on an updated 1974 Spanish census.
SEPTEMBER 6th:
The ceasefire officially begins.
1992
FEBRUARY:
The referendum, originally set for this month, is repeatedly postponed due to Moroccan obstacles and demands that Moroccan settlers should be counted amongst the eligible voters.
1997
MARCH 17th:
Former-US Secretary of State, James Baker, is appointed as the UN Secretary General's Personal Envoy for Western Sahara. Hopes run high that as a diplomatic heavy weight he will be able to overcome the stalemate and get both parties to overcome their differences to resolve the conflict peacefully..
2000
JANUARY 15th:
The IDC finishes its evaluation and releases
its list of provisional voters, naming 86,425
Saharawis as eligible voters. Morocco rejects this list and insists that over 100,000 more are eligble to vote.
JUNE 20th:
James Baker proposes a plan to give the
Saharawis a chance to vote for limited
autonomy rather than a referendum for full
independence. The Polisario rejects this
proposal as it would still legitimize Morocco’s hold on the territory.
2001
Morocco illegally creates a breach in the wall to enable overland commerce from occupied Western Sahara to West Africa through Mauritania. Despite this being a clear violation of the cease-fire, the UN does not take any action against Morocco.
2003
Baker introduces a second plan that would
allow for a referendum in 4-5 years time. The Polisario, the Algerian government, and the UN Security Council all accept this proposal, but Morocco rejects it, fearing that the referendum would result in Saharawi
independence.
2004
MARCH 30th:
The IDC formally completes its assessment of voters.
2006
SEPTEMBER 8th:
The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights publishes its report on Western Sahara, in which it clearly acknowledges the pattern of human rights abuses by the Moroccan government. It relates this as part of the larger problem stemming from the denial of the the Saharawi right to exercise self-determination.
The report is blocked from becoming public.
2007
APRIL 11th:
Morocco releases the “Moroccan Initiative for Negotiating an Autonomy Statute for the
Sahara Region,” outlining its hardening stance against Saharawi self-determination.
JUNE 18-19th:
The Polisario and the Moroccan government
have their first face-to-face meeting since
2000. At the negotiations in Manhasset, New York, the Polisario expresses its willingness to compromise with Morocco’s autonomy plan, but only if it still allows for a referendum on self-determination and potentially independence. Moroccan representatives then declare the government is only willing to allow
self-determination based on autonomy.
AUGUST 10-11th:
The second round of negotiations
commences. The possibility of allowing Saharawi refugees living in southwestern Algeria to see their family members in occupied Western Sahara is one of the main points of discussion.
2008
Human Rights Watch and the US Department of State both release reports affirming that Saharawi activists and supporters that are pro self-determination face harassment and violence from the Moroccan occupying forces.
2009
APRIL 30th:
The Security Council renews MINURSO’s
mandate in Western Sahara until April 30th,
2011. From there, MINURSO would be
renewed many more times through today.
2020
OCTOBER 2nd:
The UN Secretary-General identifies the
Guerguerat crossing as an area of concern in his Report. Considered part of the UN
demilitarized buffer zone, Guergerat, a city in southern Western Sahara through which the road to Mauritania runs, became a site of tension as Saharawis protesting the
exploitation of their homeland’s natural
resources clashed with Moroccan border
officials.
OCTOBER 18th:
Saharawi civilians continue to protest along
the Guerguerat crossing and build a number
of roadblocks. MINURSO observers report the protests as being peaceful.
OCTOBER 18th:
MINURSO reports the presence of 12 armed Polisario personnel at the Guerguerat crossing alongside civilian protestors. Later, 16 Royal Moroccan Army vehicles bearing “heavy-duty, earth-moving machinery” are spotted heading to Guerguerat and creating a second breach in the wall.
5
War Again
The tentative peace between the Polisario and the Moroccan government shattered in November 2020. Fatigued by years of broken promises from the UN and the international community, the Saharawis under the Polisario decided to take matters into their own hands and resume armed struggle to reclaim their rights and homeland. While it is
unknown how this phase of the conflict will unfold, it is clear that even after decades of oppression the Saharawis are not quick to give up on their belief in their right to self-determination and will continue to stand firm in the face of injustice.
2020
NOVEMBER 13th:
The Polisario and the Royal Moroccan Army
forces exchange fire in Guerguerat, but there are no casualties.
NOVEMBER 14th:
Polisario leader Brahim Ghali announces the end to the ceasefire, citing the infringement of Moroccan troops into the buffer zone as the reason behind the resumption of hostilities.
DECEMBER 10th:
Former President of the United States,
Donald Trump, announces that the US will
formally recognize Morocco's claim over
Western Sahara in exchange for embracing
full diplomatic ties with Israel
2021
JANUARY 20th:
Current-President Joseph Biden officially
enters office. Since his inauguration, Biden
has failed to reverse Trump’s decision on
Western Sahara and has even continued his
policies in support of Morocco, despite
claiming to support international law and
human rights.
FEBRUARY 23rd:
The Permanent Representative of Morocco to the UN states that all armed conflict has
subsided in the territory, despite the Polisario indicating differently.
MARCH 2nd:
The German government, while in support of normalization between Israel and Morocco, criticizes Trump’s decision to abruptly recognize Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara. In retaliation, Morocco severs diplomatic ties with Germany.
MARCH 9th:
The Peace and Security Council of the African Union holds its annual meeting and publishes a statement on the deteriorating situation in Western Sahara. The Council calls on the UN to recommit to guiding negotiations and calls on both sides to cease hostilities.
AUGUST 24th:
In protest of the Moroccan government’s
treatment of the Saharawis and its failure to
end the conflict by allowing for a referendum,
Algeria announces it is cutting off all
diplomatic ties with Morocco.
OCTOBER 6th:
Staffan de Mistura of Italy is appointed as the UN Secretary General’s Personal Envoy for Western Sahara in an effort to reignite
negotiations.
OCTOBER 29th:
The Security Council issues Resolution 2602, renewing MINURSO’s mandate for another year.
NOVEMBER 6th:
On the 46th anniversary of the Green March, King Mohamed VI of Morocco declares that “Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara will never be up for negotiation.”
2022
JANUARY:
Personal Envoy Mistura makes his first visit
to the refugee camps in Tindouf and also
meets with Moroccan officials in Rabat to
get negotiations restarted.
FEBRUARY:
Morocco and Germany restore diplomatic
relations. German president, Frank-Walter
Steinmeier, then invites King Mohamed VI
to visit Berlin.
